Introduction to Psychological Testing Paper Essay

The field of psychology is one of those broad and exciting fields. Though various psychologists tend to work in a diverse array of fields one of the common aspects that they all share is that they all study behavior and associate its results to some specific measurements. Psychological tests are some of the common tests that are carried out in this field of psychology. The tests are carried and analyzed then the results are interpreted in such a way so as to attain different attributes for various individuals. One of the interesting things is that these results may vary in accordance with various factors which may either have a positive or negative impact on the tests. These tests have found their way into a number of applications with individuals being tested to determine whether they are up to task to ascertain their levels of performance in a diverse array of fields. The term test in psychology testing is one that has to be defined first in order to determine the workability of the process and the results that should be expected. According to a renowned psychologist Anatasi (1997) the term test as used in the field of psychology, is defined as â€Å"an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior†. This very definition tends to bring three core elements of psychology testing. The term objective tends to generally give the idea on how the test score is interpreted meaning that it is as a result of an objective criterion instead of subjective judgment by the examiner. The term standardized in the definition means that the results will be uniform independent of any qualified examiner. The term sample in the definition shows us that the test is drawn from previous collected inferences and results. Most of the psychological tests are categorized into a variety of groups depending on the results and the individuals involved. These tests may be administered to an individual that is one person at a time and they are known as â€Å"individual tests† as compared to â€Å"group tests† which are administered to more that an individual. See more: how to start an essay From time in memorial various psychologists have used three main criteria’s to distinguish various abilities that individuals possess. The tests may differ in that they may be grouped as either â€Å"ability or personality tests†. A personality test is described as one that is related â€Å"to the overt and covert dispositions of the individual† (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2008). This means that these types of tests will generally measure an individual’s typical behavior. These types of tests will then be divided into two distinctive groups of either structured or objective personality tests. The structured type of tests require the individual to choose from a variety of two options such as â€Å"true† and â€Å"false† or â€Å"yes† and â€Å"no†. Objective personality tests on the other hand are more complicated in that an individual is required to provide spontaneous responses. This type of testing generally assumes that the individual will tend to produce unique characteristics. The main concept behind these tests is actually to evaluate differences or variations that various individuals may exhibit. One of the assumptions that these tests tend to be pegged upon is that the resultants are actually the real differences among individuals. With this it can then be said that the most important aspect of testing is to generally differentiate among those individuals taking the tests (Domino and Domino, 2006). The three, aptitude, achievement and intelligence are used to determine the types of tests to be performed so as to determine their degree in an individual. Achievement in contrast to aptitude refers to previous learning while aptitude refers to the potential that an individual inhibits to do more. Intelligence on the other hand is distinguished from both achievement and aptitude in the sense that it refers to the general potential an individual has to â€Å"solve problems, adapt to environments and profit from experience†. The three however are believed to be interrelated in one way or another and a term that has been coined up to describe this situation is the term â€Å"human ability† (Kaufman and Kaufman, 2004). Two of these tests; achievement and aptitude tests have found their way in educational and most of the times employment institutions where they are used to deduce an individual’s ability. These tests are used to determine how much an individual knows about a certain aspects such as calculations, spellings or masterly of certain material objects such as practices and the like. Intelligence tests on the other hand try to measure an individual’s ability to basically understand the world and its environment analyze its functionality and use the acquired knowledge to improve the quality of the individual’s life. A renowned psychologist by the name Alfred Whitehead (1929) describes intelligence as having the potential to â€Å"enables the individual to profit by error without being slaughtered by it†. However the measurement of this ability has come under close scrutiny with critics arguing that most tests do not provide clear cut results or fail out rightly. The field of psychological testing is mainly governed by two major principles that is; validity and reliability. The term validity as it used in this field means that the tests and results are useful in whatever the reason they are carried on. On more technical terms the term can be said to represent the degree in which â€Å"certain inferences or interpretations† can be considered to be appropriate (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2008). Reliability on the other hand refers to the degree in which the tests and results obtained are free from errors. It refers to the accuracy, consistency, dependability of the test results. Although the concept of psychological testing is becoming an important phenomenon in today’s modern world, controversies have in some cases dogged the otherwise noble idea. One of the aspects that come into play is that most of the tests are usually administered by counselors and if the training is not adequate then the validity and reliability of the tests may be somehow substandard. The issue of ethics also comes into play and when monetary aspects are considered then the issue of ethics may just be thrown out of the window. This is especially true considering the number of individuals especially in the internet who purport to be offering an array of tests which their authenticity does not weigh the balance. Some social and theoretical issues have arisen with the fragile issue of race finding its path to those who vehemently criticize this process. However since nothing will ever be perfect, a compromise is often reached whereby the positives of this process outweigh the disadvantages and thus the process is preferred and applied in many institutions.

Carl Robins- Case Study

Introduction The case study of Carl Robbins reveals a company and an employee who is unprepared to welcome properly, new employees into the company environment in an effective and meaningful way. Chris Traynor, a board-certified SPHR (Senior professional of human resources) relates it this way, â€Å"A botched orientation is almost always a top-down problem, regardless of who might have the everyday responsibility of training the new hire. It is a mystery when you consider what is already known about the true value of good employees and just how difficult and costly it can be to attract them to your business (2008). The orientation of new employees is critical to their early performance and the retention of the new employees over the long term. Orientation should involve HR, training, and the supervisors of the new employees in an organized manner in order that the transition into the new role or department will be graceful, but impactful (Giacalone, 2009). Preparation was missing b efore Carl Robbin became a recruiter for ABC, Inc. Background Key Problems Find new location for orientation Complete all missing transcripts and incomplete applications Mandatory drug screen must be scheduled Complete orientation manual with only 17 days left Table 1. Details of orientation to be prepared (University of Phoenix, 2009) New location New employee’s missing documents Mandatory Drug Screen Orientation Manual Alternative and proposed solutions New Location Call a local hotel where he can meeting to conduct his new employee orientation. Reserve the room that Joe booked either in the am or pm after the computer training class. Find a new facility where they can conduct a meeting. Call a local restaurant where he can reserve a room to continue the new class orientation. Complete missing transcripts and incomplete applications Carl should begin by contacting each individual as necessary and work on each one to make sure that the mandatory drug test is completed by June 15th. Consolidate a list of the individuals that are still missing information and submit the information to Mrs. Carrol to assure her that this is going to be completed as promised. Schedule a time where they can come in and fill out the missing paperwork. Start sending out an email to every student who needs to have this completed by June 15th. Make sure that the new employees submit the missing transcripts before June 10th Drug screen appointments Contact the Human Resource department where they can begin scheduling appointments for the new employees to get have this resolved. Schedule a conference call where he can explain the importance of the matter. Inform all new employees that if this is not resolve before June 15th, then they cannot attend the class and it will delay their start date with the company. Incomplete orientation manuals Over the past years, this is not something new that Carl is facing and he needs to take action immediately and address it to the right personnel. A company as big as ABC, Inc. might have old manuals that he can use, but he will need to contact the main office to request these materials. Below are some of the solutions to this problem. Call the office to have this ordered or reprinted Begin by getting a copy of it and make enough copies for everyone. Once he gets a hold of a legit copy he needs to save if to his file for future reference. Review all material and make any necessary changes if needed. Conclusion The concern that Carl Robbin has implied in the scenario needs to be replaced by action and planning. The facts remain that the time is short. Promises have been made to facilitate the orientation in a certain time frame. Completion of the project is necessary to fulfill the goals set by the supervisor and as personally set by Robbins. This project can be completed on time and with an acceptable level of quality. Whereas some additional expense may be incurred if a conference room must be rented, it is likely a minor expense when the cost of recruiting is considered. The additional stress and poor pre-planning will be a learning experience. ABC, Inc. and Robbin will be better prepared in the case of another recruiting drive after the experience considered in this scenario. References: _http://www. criticalthinking. org_ http://find. galegroup. com/itx/start. do? prodId=ITOF. University of Phoenix. (2009). Case study for student analysis . Retrieved from University of Phoenix, COM215 Essentials of College Writing website.

Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Economy - Essay Example The government debt increases due to budget deficits do no good but instead create complex problems for the economy and it drags the economy further away from growth. This is especially in the case of under developed economies as they are worse-off by such a situation. On the other hand, developed countries do have a cushion against such problems and endure the effects by strictly controlling the inflation through monetary policy. In case of developing economies, they have lesser reserves to back their position, while being more productive they still run continuous deficits (Charles, 1995). This invokes further activity, owing to the fact that the economy is below its potential output but usually is not managed adequately and thus results in demand pull or cost push inflation in different circumstances and hence these developing countries are seldom able to reap the benefits of their economic activity. The budget deficits are rooted from the time of the great depression of 1930s which was witnessed by and had strong influence on many economies worldwide before the Second World War though there were numerous reasons for the Great Depression beginning in 1929, including not only the structural weaknesses but also a series of certain other events. The declining demand in the economy laid down pressures on government and whilst they had to manage the decline in economic activity, the government expenditures eventually increased to accommodate these problems thus putting burdens over the budgets and eventually running deficits (Bernanke, 2007). Another reason stated had been the decline in international trade thus affecting many countries of the world whose economy depended on the international transactions. As stated by one of the famous analysts, the chain of events proceeded as follows (Fisher, 1933): Thus when the free hand didn’t work out, government started to play a pivotal role in the economic activity for the

Human Resource Planning in Hospitality Assignment

Human Resource Planning in Hospitality - Assignment Example It is through the Human resource planning process the extended personnel costs can be reduced by anticipating shortages and surpluses. Human resource planning provide informed base for planning employee development (Human resource planning). Human resource planning covers all the aspects of matters related to the organisation personnel from recruiting and selecting to staffing, training, employee involvement, empowerment and conflict resolution. The first and most important task undertaken by the Human resource department is the recruitment of the employees. It is important to identify the position's requirement before undertaking the task of recruitment. This in turn helps to find the most suitable candidate. Better selection of the employee leads to the performance improvement of the firm. In case of recruitment and selection process the firm and the employee exchange information. The firm provides the candidates with the information regarding the objective of the company and the tasks related to the job. On the other hand the candidate describe his capabilities. The main purpose of the business and the organisation is to project the positive image of the firm, highlight the benefits attached to the job and the future prospects of development in the organisation in shape of promotion and increase in compensation. The process overdone can lead to higher and unrealistic expectations of employees, which can lead to the lower efficiency and output level in case of the lower expectations fulfilment. On the other hand the management should elicit from all the applicants an objective demonstration of their knowledge, skills, abilities aptitudes motivation and past performance. (Koontz and Weihrich, 1993) There are two sources of employees' recruitment, which can be classified, as internal and external. By filling a job position from the internal source i.e. by transferring or promoting an employee has a positive effect on the morale of the employee the candidate has relatively more information regarding the job process. So it is relatively beneficial to undertake internal recruiting prior to external recruiting. In case the present employees cannot fulfil the job specifications than the firm must go to external sources or in other case if the firm needs workforce expansion. The firms are available w ith several outside sources to attract the candidates. First and the most important source are the advertising. The companies give their advertisement in the media read only with the information about the company; the job specification can be included in the ad to permit some self-screening. Second important source is the job postings on the company web site. Since the advent of the information technology most of the firms have their official presence on the Internet in shape of web sites. There is a special section on these web sites, which provide information about the company and the job requirements, and the current job postings needed to be filled by the company. The job application forms can also be filled online and after the application form analysis by the company management short listed candidates are contacted. Third are

Thomas Jefferson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Thomas Jefferson - Essay Example In fact, the same historical figure who penned the words â€Å"all men were created equal† owned 200 slaves and more importantly violated his republican political philosophy during his presidency. There have been varied views on the question of the contradictions seen in the greatest of the American Fathers. However, one most justified position to hold would be to see Jefferson taking a part in the American trait of being in conflict rather than perceiving him as a marked contradicting figure. Such a position is partly on the basis of the contradictory views and conclusions on the contradiction of Jefferson, the one time political giant of our Nation and partly on the awareness of American trait of conflicts. Thus, it is of pertinent value to comprehend the interpretations of the historians who consider Jefferson as a person of contradictions. According to Christopher Hitchens who writes of how historians view Jefferson, â€Å"it would be lazy or obvious to say that he contained contradictions or paradoxes. This is true of everybody, and of everything. It would be infinitely more surprising to strike upon a historic figure, or indeed a nation, that was not subject to this law. Jefferson did not embody contradiction. Jefferson was a contradiction, and this will be found at every step of the narrative that goes to make up his life. (Hitchens, 2008). It has ever been remarked that Jefferson was in two minds about slavery throughout his career which can be seen as evidence for his conflicts. On the one hand, as a young politician, he held his views for the prohibition of slavery in new American territories and, on the other, he never freed his own slaves which made him a contradiction in hi mself. The significant question ever have been â€Å"How could a man responsible for writing the sacred words "We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal" have been a slave owner? He never resolved his internal

Indicate the implication of the article for Saudi Managers Essay

Indicate the implication of the article for Saudi Managers - Essay Example e objectives: â€Å"to replace foreign workers with competent Saudis, create more jobs for Saudis in the private sector, regulate the management of both local and foreign workers, and improve the welfare of Saudi and expatriates working in the private sector.† These are the emerging legal implications for Saudi managers. Specifically, the new legal requirements are as follows: Thus, Saudi managers will have to ensure that their HRM practices comply with these laws. In particular, vulnerable and endow workers have been granted basic legal rights concerning annual leave, health and safety precautions, maximum working hours, safe working environment, and for females, maternity leave. It will be the onus of the managers to guarantee that these basic legal rights are provided in the workplace. It is suggested that in Saudi Arabia â€Å"laws are often partially enforced and inequitably applied.† But, the government has laid out these laws to promote welfare so they should be implemented by all organizations to which they concern. Keeping this in mind, the government lays stress on trying â€Å"to shape the cognitive norms that guide manager’s HRM policies and practices†¦ by influencing managers’ beliefs about what is good HRM practice and what is not.† This shows that the government has not only established the legal framework to improve working conditions, but is also attempting to influence thinking by providing justifications, guidelines and offering incentives in order to make the policies accepted more widely. In doing so, they are also keen to point out that these new laws do not contravene the shariah due to the pervasive influence of the latter. The government wants â€Å"to create sustainable employment for the increasing number of young Saudis joining the labour market,† hence the targeting of the private sector. The ground reality is that these laws are a concern for some Saudi managers. For example, it is not only convenient but also cheaper to hire

European Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

European Business - Essay Example The most important institutions of EU are the Council of the European Union, European Commission, and the Court of Justice of the European Union, European Council and the European Central bank. These institutions play a vital role in ensuring that the policies and matters affecting the EU member states are taken care of (Nelson et al. 2012 P.1-5). Apart from the growth of EU member states, the Union has also undergone a number of significant changes since its formation in 1957. The most important changes, which have been witnessed, are the Single European Act of February 1986 and the Maastricht Treaty of February 1992, which led to the establishment of the Euro. The objective of this paper is to explore the importance of the Single European Act of February 1986 and the Maastricht Treaty of February 1992 and their impacts on the UK economy and business. The Current Problems in the Eurozone and the Response of EU Institutions The Eurozone has faced a lot of challenges over the recent y ears. For instance, what begun as a debt crisis in Greece towards the end of 2009 has evolved as a big economic crisis in Eurozone, which has threatened the economic stability in Europe and the world at large. In fact, some economic analyst views the Eurozone as the biggest threat to the economy of the United States according to Nelson et al. (2012 p.1). At least four major problems related to economic challenges have been identified with the Eurozone. These include weakness in the European banking system, high levels of debts and public deficit in Eurozone nations, persistent trade imbalances within Eurozone and the economic recession as well as high rates of unemployment in Eurozone countries. High level of public debts in Eurozone countries (periphery) The problem of high level of debts in some Eurozone countries has raised a lot of concerns as to whether these countries will default on these debts. These concerns arose after high debt levels in some countries in Eurozone periphe ry increased immediately after joining the eurozone over the past decade followed by the global financial meltdown of 2008-2009, which further strained the public finance. As a result, the worst affected countries such as Ireland, Greece and Portugal had to be bailed out by the Eurozone governments and IMF in order to pay off these debts. However, even after the bailout, a country like Greece is still seeking for ‘haicuts’(losses on bonds held by private creditors. Portugal is also argued to be considering restructuring its debt. Italy and Spain are also grappling with the problems of debts, which have seen many investors becoming increasingly nervous (Nelson et al. 2012 p.2-4). Secondly, weakness in the Eurozone banking system is raising a lot of concerns about the levels of public debts. The ongoing concerns regarding the crisis have triggered capital flight from banks among some Eurozone nations, and some banks are now reported to be experiencing a lot of difficultie s to borrow in capital markets. Furthermore, analysts argue that European banks have insufficient capital to absorb losses on their holdings of autonomous bonds in case any of the Eurozone country defaults (Nelson et al. 2012 p.2-4). The third problem experienced by the Eurozone concerns lack of growth and high unemployment in Eurozone member states. For instance, A survey conducted by the IMF in January 2012 downgraded the

Seamus Heaney Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Seamus Heaney - Assignment Example However, although these themes contextually appear to be poet’s major thematic concerns yet these themes are also a reflection of universal human behavior and interests. Both the poems Follower and Digging take the readers on a journey down the memory lane where the poet is observed to be recalling two incidents of joy and pride from his pasts regarding his father and grandfather. The Follower depicts a tale of a young child who idealizes his father and his profession i.e. farming and reflects on the child’s feelings about his future when he will also get a chance to walk in his father’s footsteps and will be able to work on his beloved lands. The poem also deals with an interesting phenomenon of life i.e. life comes in full circle and evolution under the context that when a child is young he idealizes his father as he sees him at a high pedestal where he can never expect himself to reach that point. Yet as he grows up ultimately he outshines his father’s glory and succeeds his father and then his father is the one who looks up to his son’s success.  Ã‚  However, he also hints upon the changing times where he thinks that his pen is his weapon to succeed in life although he is not ashamed of his roots, in fact, he still finds it delightful to work on the lands along with using the pen as a tool for a better future. Self-identity of a person is the sole constituent that makes up a personality of a human being because it is a proof against an individual’s individuality and an independent existence as it forms the foundation of a man’s ego and self-esteem. Subsequently, it is a natural human instinct to struggle in life in order to retain his independence and never let another individual question his identity for this reason every individual feels pride over his roots as his heritage also provides him self-confidence. Hence Heaney is also observed to be extensively incorporating the theme of identity in both the po ems Followers and Digging which reflects on the Poet’s feeling regarding his life history. As Kenneally (1995) also states, â€Å"the mystical authority of poetry has its analogue in the mystical authority of a particular conception of Ireland, and it is no accident that one of the terms which discussion of Heaney’s poetry and discussion of Irish cultural Politics have in common is ‘Identity’† (p.180). Kenneally also reiterates that Heaney’s poems are, â€Å"carefully structured to give the notion of identity pride of place in Heaney’s critical orientation† (p.180). The readers while reading the poem since the importance that the poet puts in the profession of his ancestors as he believes that farming is his actual identity although he might seek other means to succeed in life. As the poet also states in Digging,

Genetically Modified Foods Essay Example for Free

Genetically Modified Foods Essay Introduction The world is slowly running out of food. Impoverished people have nowhere to turn. Biotechnology researchers think they have found a way to reverse the world famine. This way is through genetically modified foods which are foods that come from genetically engineered organisms. Examples of such organisms are sheep, cows, and fish. However, since it is a new invention, it is being met with harsh and legitimate concerns. While it may help the world’s food crisis, it may also do that at the expense of human health. Moreover, In the 90’s in the USA, the Food and Drug Administration decided that genetically modified food was safe and did not require special regulation. They stated that is was, â€Å"not inherently dangerous. † (FDA, 1998). This allowed genetically modified food such as soybean oils and tomatoes to enter the market. There are lots of ideas about the GMF. Some scientists say that it is no harmful affects of GMF and it may be a solution for scarcity of food and even it is healthy. However, some others say that GMFs are dangerous for public health. And It can damage biodiversity. Genetically modified foods may be a good solition to increase the amount of food. The problem is there are lots of people go to sleep hungry everyday and the number of hungry people is getting bigger. And International Food Policy Research Institute state there are â€Å"120 devoloping countries† which are very close to limit of hunger and â€Å"57 of which with a serious or worse hunger situation. †(Global Hunger Index, 7) The reason of this hunger is there is not enough food to feed them and because the world population is getting higher but the areas which use in farming are getting smaller. Farmers could not find suitable area to plant their crops. That is why, They have to find a different solution to be productive. Conko argues that biotech agriculture is the method by which we can increase agricultural productivity without resorting to increases in harmful chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. In the Genetic Modification it says that genetic modification provides a means to confer resistance to broad-spectrum herbicides into crops where current weed control is considered difficult. In this way, farmers can be more productive and they can get more product on their fields. â€Å"In the United States, in 2002 about 5. 5 million farmers in 145 nations were planting more than 145 million acres worth of GM crops. † (Conko) On the other hand, genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops might have a negative impact on biodiversity. Genetically Modified crops have an impact on birds and insect. A crop plant modified to be toxic to insect pests can have a direct harmful effect on non-target insects if they eat the plant. It can also have an indirect effect by reducing the insects that are a food source for other wildlife, such as farmland birds. Genetically Modified crops that are tolerant to herbicides could also lead to a reduction in weed populations that act as refuges for beneficial insects, and those that are eaten by birds. This process takes time because of this GM crops evaluate as a good solution but it can destroy the biological diversity. And US conservation organization Royal Society,founded in London In 1660 is a learned society for science, support it. They state that the likelihood of the spread of Genetically modified into the wild populations, the risk of superweeds being produced, the impact Genetically modified introductions might have on the colonies of micro organisms living in the soil and how such risks can be assesed and analysed. Also John Innes Centre, Founded in England is an independent centre for research and training in plant and microbial science, state that Monarch butterfly larvae fed only on leaves covered in pollen from Bt corn grew more slowly and suffered higher death rates and pink bollworm fed on cotton producing the Bt toxin. Aphids fed on Genetically Modified potatoes producing a different toxin were also reported to have a harmful effect on ladybirds feeding on the aphids. Genetically Modified crops can be beneficial for health in terms of their food value. Foods include lots of vitamins which are necessary to our body. In early days, our foods were full of vitamins, proteins, carbohydrate and they were occupied with value. However, now there are not enough foods which are full of value. Because there are lots of environmental factors like global warming which causes to summers takes long time, and scarcity of water, and also some pests. These factors effect the crops and farmers have to use pesticide and this cause to decrease food value. And it leads lots of health problems. And the one of the most important health problem is Vitamin A deficiency. This is the cause of at least â€Å"1 million childhood deaths† each year and is â€Å"considered the single most serious cause of blindness amongst children† in the developing countries. â€Å"A possible solution to this problem is the genetic modification of rice. † ( Potrykus, quoted inGenetic Modification) Although GM foods are benefical for the food value, in some circumstances, it can be very harmful for human health. Without too much control eating genetically modified food can be dangerous and it can lead lots of diseases like Eosonophil Myalgia Syndrome. In this debate, the Physicians and Scientists for Responsible Application of Science and Technology, is a website to educate the general public about genetic engineering in general and foods, revealed that After eating a food supplement produced by genetically engineered bacteria, â€Å"37 persons were killed 1500 people were permanently disabled† in the US in a disease called Eosonophil Myalgia Syndrome. It was caused by one or more extremely poisonous substances that unexpectdedly appeared in this food supplement. This accident confirms the predictions of molecular biologists that genetic engineering can cause the appearance of dangerous unexpected substances. As a Conclusion, there are lots of arguments in the GMF. Maybe It can be a solution for lots of problems, maybe it can be invention of the this century. I think, however, without too much researching about GMF we cannot use it to gain profit. Because human health is important than anything. We have to more careful. In the future, After very deep research about the GMF, we can solve the sustanibility problem. Works cited Chapter 8: Genetic Modification. Agricultural Pollution. 193-211. n. p. : Taylor Francis Ltd / Books, 2002. Environment Complete. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. Genetically Modified Plants and the Environment. Royal Society Submission to the Governments GM Science Rewiev. The Royal Society, 1 May 2003. Web. 31 Mar 2013. http://royalsociety. org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/publications/2003/9827-Environment. pdf. New evidence indicate that genetic engineering was the cause. Most important news. PSRAST, 06 Jan 2007. Web. 31 Mar 2013. http://www. psrast. org/demsd. htm. U S Food and Drug Administration Home Page. Web. Conko, G. The benefits of biotech: as the world’s population grows, environmental stewardship will require science to find ways to produce more food on less land. Regulation, 26(1), pp. 20-25. Print. Spring 2003. Ringler, Claudia ,Rosegrant, Mark W. , Olofinbiyi, Tolulope, Wiesmann, Doris, Fritschel, Heidi, Badiane, Ousmane, Torero, Maximo, Yohannes, Yisehac, Thompson, Jennifer, von Oppeln, Constanze, Rahall, Joseph, Von Grebmer, Klaus, Claudia, Ringler Global Hunger Index. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2012. Print. Impact of growing GM crops on biodiversity. John Innes Centre. Norwich Research Park, n. d. Web. 18 Apr 2013.

The Concept Of Starbucks Marketing Essay

The Concept Of Starbucks Marketing Essay Starbucks places the customer and the service delivered to the customer above everything else. Even though Starbucks is a retail coffee store, the value proposition is not about the coffee exclusively but about the coffee culture and the experience of drinking coffee. With its value proposition, Starbucks moves away from the tangible benefits that the coffee offers, such as taste, stimulation, alertness and concentrates on the quality of its coffee and the intangible benefits of the experience of drinking Starbucks coffee. Starbucks value proposition is not about coffee, it is about the experience of drinking coffee in a Starbucks store integrating the product with the emotional benefits. All these factors were strong enough to maintain Starbucks success after a slowdown when consumers seemed to draw inward after September 11; Starbucks is rocketing ahead once again. Sales in stores open at least 13 months grew by 6% in the 43 weeks through July 28, and the company predicts monthly same-store sales gains as high as 7% through the end of this fiscal year. That is below the 9% growth rate in 2000, but investors seem encouraged. Were going to see a lot more growth, says Jerome A. Castellini, president of Chicago-based CastleArk Management, which controls about 300,000 Starbucks shares. The stock is on a run.Moreover, the Starbucks name and image connect with millions of consumers around the world. Starbucks now commands so much disk space in consumers heads that its extremely difficult to compete against them, said Nancy Koehn, a professor of business administration at Harvard Business School.à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ It built its brand through its storefronts, and that is a very powerful word of mouth. It was one of the fastest-growing brands in a BusinessWeek survey of the top 100 global brands published Aug. 5, 2002. At a time when one corporate star after another has crashed to earth, brought down by revelations of earnings misstatements, executive greed, or worse, Starbucks has not faltered. The company confidently predicts up to 25% annual sales and earnings growth this year. On Wall Street, Starbucks is the last great growth story. Its stock, including four splits, has soared more than 2,200% over the past decade, surpassing Wal-Mart (WMT ), General Electric (GE ), PepsiCo (PEP ), Coca-Cola (KO ), Microsoft (MSFT ), and IBM (IBM ) in total return. Now at $21, it is hovering near its all-time high of $23 in July, before the overall market drop. From commodity to indulgent necessity Starbucks blasted open a new market by turning a basic commodity into an indulgent necessity for the 20-million customers it serves each week, creating an espresso bar culture nonexistent in this country only two decades ago. In 1992, right when the company became public, Starbucks had 140 stores located in the Northwest and Chicago. Ten years later, in 2002, Starbucks had over 4500 stores scattered throughout the U.S and internationally. During those ten years, Starbucks established itself as the à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"number oneà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  coffee store in the U.S by following an expansion strategy. Starbucks had locations in 42 of the 50 states and was continuing this expansion strategy in order to capture new markets and cluster existing markets. Starbucks retail expansion strategy consisted of the company selecting locations based on whether the demographics of an area matched the profile of a typical Starbucks drinker, the level of coffee consumption and the nature and intensity of competition. An important component of this strategy was that Starbucks did not mind cannibalizing the sales of its stores as long as the incremental sales resulting from the opening of a new store were higher than before. Clustering stores increases total revenue and market share, Schultz argues, even when individual stores poach on each others sales. The strategy works, he says, because of Starbucks size. It is large enough to absorb losses at existing stores as new ones open up, and soon overall sales grow beyond what they would have with just one store. Meanwhile, it is cheaper to deliver to and manage stores located close together. In addition, by clustering, Starbucks can quickly dominate a local market. The lesson learned by both Starbucks and Dunkin Donuts is that a retailer can create demand where demand is latent, said Jim McKenna, president of McKenna Associates Corp., a retail real estate training company in Milton, Mass. They can increase the siz e of the pie. Progress or Regress The retail expansion has led the Starbucks customers to view it as more corporate and caring about making money. Indeed, the crowding of so many stores so close together has become a national joke, eliciting quips such as this headline in The Onion, a satirical publication: A New Starbucks Opens in Rest-room of Existing Starbucks. And even the company admits that while its practice of blanketing an area with stores helps achieve market dominance, it can cut sales at existing outlets. We probably self-cannibalize our stores at a rate of 30% a year, Schultz says. Adds Lehman Brothers Inc. analyst Mitchell Speiser: Starbucks is at a defining point in its growth. Its reaching a level that makes it harder and harder to grow, just due to the law of large numbers.

The Ethics Of Sex Appeal In Advertising Media Essay

The Ethics Of Sex Appeal In Advertising Media Essay Every media consumer is alert to sex in advertising. Its pervasive use and misuse are constantly before us, and typically elicit strong criticism (Richmond and Hartland, 1982, p.53). As anyone can see, the employment of sex in advertising has been in our midst for several decades and the reason for it? It works. Advertisements with sexual undertones are remembered over and over again than advertisements that are not. The question to ask though is, how ethical is it to make use of sexual appeals in advertisements? Does sex sell? Actually, sex does not sell, but sexiness does (Cebrzynski, 2000, p. 14). By means of sex appeals in advertising is a good way to aim at specific market segments but not all. Questions like what is identified as sexual appeals in advertising? Where and when should sex be used? Does the use of sexual appeals lead to an advantage for brand remembrance? must be addressed exhaustively. Sex and the Media Today, sex permeates advertising in the United States and in many countries all over the world as contemporary society is extremely fixated with the demonstration of sex in the media as never before. The issue of whether sex sells could be countered by screening the massive quantities of billboards and classified ads which integrate some form of sex appeal or nudity (Pynor, 2004, p. 42). Several reasons have been provided with the use of sexually oriented themes, among them are to achieve product and brand attention, recognition, recall, and sales (Alexander and Judd, 1978, p. 47). Observably, sex is utilized to sell a wide array of products from cars to fashion products, and is meant to attract not only the male customers, but female, consumers as well. The employment of sex as an instrument in advertising can be traced back to the 1800s when the advertising industry noticed the beneficial effect of using degrees of sexuality in their advertising drives. These economic gains include above all else an increase in revenue due to the point of difference that sexual schemes provide for the product. Sometimes, the use of sex also affords shock-value that frequently triggers social debate and helps in the product promotions continuing recall. Author of The Erotic History of Advertising Tom Reichert has this to say Many real-life examples from the 1800s to the present exist to suggest that it has worked, and does work, to inflame not only consumers libidos but their motivations and desires to make purchases. In some cases, sex in advertising contributes to the building of strong, vibrant and long-lasting brands (Reichert, 2003, p. 9). As it is, the incessant use of sex in advertising from the 1800s until these days is a demonstration of the fact that it is an effective tool that works for advertisers. Literature Review Sex Appeal in Advertising Advertising is one of the most prolific and all-encompassing forms of communication in the world (Reichert, 2003, p.20). This type of company to customer communication lifts several concerns about the ethics of advertising because its practice is very convincing and powerful (Treise and Weigold, 1994). Advertising has turned to become an excellent way for business firms to create a positive image for them and for the public to easily adapt to such image. Image creation is a public relations approach that has increasingly aimed young adults and teens because they are not interested on conventional direct advertising (Goodman and Dretzin, 1999), obviously, advertisers target the demographic group of young adults and teens because they account for a huge amount of American consumer spending. The practice of utilizing sex appeal in advertising is nothing new. Sexual images (nudity) can be found in advertisements as far back as the late 1800s and in the early 1900s, it was used to sell soaps, perfumes and creams. These advertisements claimed to transform any woman to become sexier for a mans pleasure and as sex advertising boomed in the 40s and 50s, controversy abound. Until today, a lot of business enterprises find sex appeal as an effective tactic in advertising. When Maidenform bras began to use models with their shirts off, it became the number one bra company and when Jovan fragrance used sexuality to sell its product, company revenues soared from $1.5 million to $77 million in just seven years (Reichert, 2003). In a 1981 study conducted by Reid and Soley, advertisements were more likely to be appealing and immediately recognized if an attractive endorse is used (Severn and Belch, 1990). In another survey, 32% of consumers confessed that there is strong likelihood of them buying a product if it uses an advertisement with strong sexual undertones (Fetto, 2001). Capitalizing on the idea of sex appeal, people sell their products with the notion that such product is for sexy people and to own that specific product can make any person sexy. Such sexiness can be depicted through the clothes being worn, the models poses, the lighting being used in the advertisement, positioning of the models or in their facial expressions, location used, and interaction. Likewise, companies employ this idea to connect the company image with allure and prestige. As it is, sexuality associates brands with sexual activities and increased attractiveness, something desired by consumers (Reichert, 2001/2003). Although the argument that wanton sexual appeals generate off-putting results because of perceptions of disreputable and scheming practices is basic and extremely valid, it also assumes a deliberative, cognitive mechanism. Past research investigations have found that the process of judging whether a persuasive message infringes ethical standards or not demands cognitive effort (Campbell and Kirmani, 2000). Yet end users characteristically spend little time and effort when viewing an ad (Sengupta and Gorn, 2002; Burnett and Moriarty 1998; Kassarjian, 1977). Hence, it is imperative to understand reactions to improper sex appeals under thin slice processing (Ambady, Bernieri, and Richeson, 2000), such as when consumers view ads under constricted cognitive capacity. Without a doubt, unstructured, spur-of-the-moment, uncontrolled responses may be quite different from more cautiously considered responses in the sphere of sex-based advertising. Recent research by Sengupta and Dahl (2008) examined non-deliberative reactions to the gratuitous use of sex in advertising. Men and women in these experiments were placed under high cognitive load while viewing an ad that showed an unequivocal sexual image and a nonsexual image. Unlike previous research that has found that both men and women abhor the gratuitous use of sex in advertising, a gender difference surfaced under constrained conditions, that is, men preferred more the advertisement containing a sexual image (compared to the nonsexual image) whereas women reported considerably adverse mind-sets toward the overtly sexual ad compared to the nonsexual advertisement. Basically, sexual imagery sets off an emotional response or reaction. In other words, viewers are, all things being equal, favorably energized by sexual information (Reichert, 2007, p. 6). With this in mind, advertising organizations employ sex in several different ways to try and convince and influence end users to purchase a product. Individuals seek out and are willing to pay for sexual content in mainstream media (Reichert, 2007, p. 7), an example of this reality is the sale in millions of copies of Cosmopolitan and Maxim each month. These magazines ads have become more competitive and risquà © due to the idea that an ad needs to be noticeable and must draw attention. Some advertisers may push the boundaries of acceptable sexual content because of direct competitive pressure. Certain product marketers utilize a higher proportion of sexual appeals than other marketers because of the nature of the product and the relevance of sex to product benefits (Reichert and Carpenter, 2004). Another approach being used to draw customer attention is the idea that upon purchasing a product, such will make the buyer more sexually attractive, or can have more sex or can have a better sex life (Reichert, 2007), thus, people who are seeking for such qualities are more likely to pay for a product if the ads are sexually evocative. Gender Expression, Sexuality and Advertising This rather outmoded depiction of gender and expression of sexuality continues to be exploited in modern-day advertisements principally because it is an unbeaten prescription that brings in financial incentive and this will continue as long as women believe even if only for a brief moment that acquiring the advertised product will bring them one step closer to attaining the unattainable. As what was pointed out: those who are dissatisfied with their looks, their bodies, their status, make great consumers (Lee, 2003, p. 134). Furthermore, Nancy Etcoff (2000) sums it up well: to tell people not to take pleasure in beauty is like telling them to stop enjoying food or sex or novelty or love. This is an impracticable likelihood because to like and to want is instinctive in human character. Advertisers are intensely conscious of this as they create advertisements filled with representations of dazzling, extremely sensuous women. Women as Primary Focus? For many decades, numerous people believed that women are the major focus of sex appeals employed in advertising, however, this is not necessarily correct. It is true that women look as if they are the target most recognized in sexual appeals, but men have been targeted more recently. If women have often been the targets of sexual advertising, it is because it appears to work in many cases. As it is, sex is a potent and a convenient method of obtaining male attention and making a product desirable and in advertising, it is easy to get a mans attention by using womens bodies and associate it to the idea of getting the women as well if he buys the product (Taflinger, 1996, p.8). The most well known target of women as sexual appeals has been in beer commercials. Usually the ads go something like this a beautiful woman is sitting at a bar and a man comes up and she does not notice him at all. Then he orders a certain kind of beer and all of the sudden, he is desirable to this woman. They then get caught up in the moment and ultimately the man gets this woman (because of the beer). Another example of the man getting the hot woman because of a particular product that supposedly makes the man more desirable to the women is the AXE advertisement. AXE is a body spray for men. In the commercial, the men who use AXE get beautiful women. In fact, AXE is so effective that if in any way you come in contact with this body spray, you will be instantly wanted. There is also a commercial which features an old man getting a young, hot woman because of the AXE effect. Women are exploited repeatedly in advertising as sex appeals. But, some do not become conscious that these advertisements are often aimed at women as well. Victorias Secret is a classic example of this. Advertisers obviously want women to think that if they purchase Victorias Secret products, they could look like those stunning, sexy endorsers on the commercials seen on television or in the print ads. Obviously, these bra and panties are not going to look very good on just anyone, however, at first glance, a woman could think, wow, she looks splendid; I should get that outfit so I can look that good too. In truth, women are not the only focus in sexual appeal advertising. Men play a huge part as well. According to Taflinger (1996), It is rare for advertising to use sex as an appeal for women. Women are often less interested in the sex act itself for its own sake. They are interested in sex for what it can mean in the future. They may enjoy it as much as men, but for them it has far greater significance. Advertising cannot take advantage of a womans instinctive sexual desire because advertisings job is not to build for the future-it is to sell a product now (p. 6). Here, Taflinger attempts to elucidate the fact that women are not interested in sexual appeals on television, rather, they are interested in sex for their future. Although this seems to be correct in some instances, it is questionable when thinking about all of the ads that target men as the sex selling object. Sex Appeal and Product Branding Sex in advertising can also produce positive mind-sets and sentiments about the ad or product brand. Using catchphrases are huge in the industry along with sexual overtones. A popular example is Las Vegass tagline what happens here, stays here (Reichert, 2007). This is very indicative and interesting; people want to go to Vegas so they can find out for themselves what its all about. Sex in advertising is controversial and it is vital to reflect on consumers outlooks and points of view. While many feel there is too much sex in advertising (Treise and Weigold, 1994), most people feel that if sexual commercials are crafted with relevance and aptness, these are more likely to be accepted (Gould, 1994; Treise and Weigold, 1994). Innately, concerns and apprehensions crop up when sex appeal usage are viewed by unintended (Gould, 1994). Similar disquiet appears when advertisers target teens and young adults with these advertisements. There are concerns that these advertisements are venerated by young people and teach these young adults improper conduct (Reichert, 2001). Negative facets of this target audience advertising consist of women idolizing the sexual models being used to endorse a product and compare themselves to the advertisements (Gould, 1994). In a survey, 55.2% of respondents agreed sexual advertisements influence a teens decision to be sexually active (Tre ise and Weigold, 1994). However, the idea in advertising is give and take; the media learns from teens and teens learn from the media (Goodman and Dretzin, 1999). One cannot exclusively say who manipulates whom, so much so that even though end users anxieties arise, sex continues to be used as an powerful advertising approach. Reichert and Carpenter found that the level of sexual advertisements has remained constant from 1993 and 2003; the only thing that had increased was the females level of dressing as it has become more provocative and sometimes offensive (2004, p. 828). It is fascinating to note that some research investigations found the degree of sexuality actually increased over time. Reichert and Carpenter (2004) conducted an extension of a study that evaluated the degree of sex in 1983 and 1993. Magazine advertisements particularly were content analyzed from 2003 and compared with the issues of the previous years. The general outcomes signified that women not only persisted to be represented in a sexual manner, but that the degree of sexuality increased over time. For instance, advertising became extensively more overt from 1983 to 2003 and clothing (or lack of it as the case may be) largely contributed to this. Results revealed that in 1983 only 28% of female models wore sexually explicit clothes. This rose by 75% in 2003 when 49% of models were dressed in sexual attire. Thus, in 2003 virtually half of the models featured were shown with less rather than more clothing to be exact, in 2003 almost 4 out of 5 women who appeared in ads were sugge stively dressed, partially clad, or nude (Reichert and Carpenter, 2004)). Moreover, the images of women that were most sexually explicit were featured in mens magazines. As Linder (2004) found, general interest magazines, such as Time contained the least degree of sexualized images, when compared with magazines aimed predominantly at men and women. The increase of sexuality over time could be associated with the likeness of products that are available today. It is presumed that in 1983 there was not such an immense collection of products available on the market, and therefore did not need to be distinguished from each other to such a great degree. Furthermore, in those years, advertisers were rendered inadequate by the capability of computer graphic technologies. This is definitely not the case today and advertisers frequently resort to stimulating images to make a distinction between similar products. Particularly, according to Reichert and Carpenter, specific merchandise are promoted in a more sexual manner due to the character of the product, such as fragrance and clothing (although clothing is also often used as a means to sexualize other products). Theoretical Framework People are continuously evaluating themselves with others and this is certainly no exception when addressing advertising, particularly among women. According to Stapel and Blanton (2004), an important source of self-knowledge comes from other people. Human beings maintain a sense of who they are by contrasting their own capabilities and characteristics to other people. This so-called social comparison theory was instigated in 1954 by Festinger, who hypothesized that individuals have a longing to appraise their views, judgments and abilities that can be satisfied by social comparisons with other people. Using this premise as a scaffold, many studies have been carried out, predominantly in reference to females which raise the question does advertising take advantage of consumer tendencies to alter their body or image of themselves by creating anxieties and discontent with the self? Relative to its effect on adolescent girls which Martin and Gentry (1997) studied, the answer is yes, advertisers especially of young fashion magazines do exploit this mindset among adolescent girls, who evaluate their physical beauty with that of models in the advertisements. Martin and Gentrys study has proven that, consistent with the social comparison theory, female pre-adolescents and adolescents self-perceptions and self-esteem can be destructively impinged on when self-evaluation takes place. Other studies have suggested that advertising can have a vital role in creating and highlighting a fixation with physical charm (Downs and Harrison, 1985), and may manipulate consumers awareness of what is an adequate level of physical attractiveness (Martin and Kennedy, 1993). This conception of advertisers taking advantage of consumers perception of themselves is unswervingly associated with sex appeal in advertising. Recently, advertisers have endeavored into a contentious area with their use of female sexual images and a focus on distinct body parts, language and sex-role portrayals. These advertisers are profoundly conscious that sex appeal in an advertisement has the capacity to exert a pull on women on the premise of social comparison. In a study conducted by Craik, Clarke, and Kirkup (1998), women who were sensitive of stereotypes and were even aware of the spuriousness of the industry still desperately want to imitate these images. Such is the explanation why advertisers reportedly pay huge amounts of money every year to have their products endorsed by alluring and well-admired women, since their beauty or personality is assumed to add dazzle to the products they promote (Langmeyer and Shank, 1994). Recommendations For media and advertising practitioners, it is important to apprise the audience who will be viewing the ads before putting sexual innuendos into the advertisement piece. Advertisers need to recognize the moral intricacy of sexual appeal in advertising and integrate that understanding in their strategic thought and when designing their commercial pieces. As what Henthorne and LaTour, (1994) stated, as the ethical considerations of society change over time, what is considered appropriate and acceptable in advertising must also change (p.88). Hence, it is imperative to incessantly reassess what society would consider suitable and consider the full level of consequences of their actions before considering for what they make out as ethically acceptable.

Free Slaughterhouse-Five Essays: Dresden :: Slaughterhouse-Five Essays

Slaughterhouse-Five Dresden The focal point of Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five is the devastating fire-bombing of Dresden in World War II, an event which was experienced by the real-life Vonnegut as well as the fictional Billy Pilgrim. Through the novel, Vonnegut renders his account of an occurrence which is, in itself, indescribable. In order to tell this story to the world, Vonnegut uses Billy Pilgrim's Tralfamadorian experience as a window that allows the reader some relief from the horrors of war. According to the author, the war was a traumatic experience which is virtually impossible to describe. As Vonnegut says in the introduction, " . . .I thought, too, that it [the novel] would be a masterpiece or at least make me a lot of money, since the subject was so big . . .but not many words about Dresden came from my mind then"(Vonnegut 2). As a result of Vonnegut's involvement in the war, the accounts which are depicted in the novel create a realistic picture for the reader. Such accounts include Billy's trek to the actual slaughterhouse, and his stay there, which lasted for years. Vonnegut had this same experience. According to one source, "Sheltered in an underground meat storage locker, Vonnegut managed to survive a raid that devastated the city and killed an estimated 135,000 people-more than the number of deaths in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined"(Boomhower 1). Also, all of the characters mentioned in the novel are based on actual people encountered by Vonnegut throughout the war. At the very beginning of the war the author states that all of this "happened, more or less. The war parts, anyway, are pretty much true . . .I've changed all of the names(Vonnegut 1)." Vonnegut makes clear that he, too, has experienced Billy's struggles. He does so by intruding into the accounts of the fictional Billy with his own personal thoughts. In one case Vonnegut states, " . . .it would make a good epitaph for Billy Pilgrim--and for me too"(121). Another such event occurs when Pilgrim travels "back to Dresden, but not in the present. He was going back there in 1945, two days after the city was destroyed. Now Billy and the rest were being marched into the ruins by their guards. I was there. O'Hare was there"(212). Billy escapes from the nightmares and realities of his earthly life on the planet Tralfamadore.

Tobacco: The Cost-effectiveness of Current Smoke-free Policies Essay

1. Introduction Tobacco use constitutes a global epidemic that results in 5 million deaths each year (World Health Organization, 2008). If current trends in tobacco use continue, the number of tobacco-related deaths is expected to rise to 8 million deaths annually by 2030 – with 80 percent of these deaths taking place in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Mathers & Loncar, 2006). Currently, about 10 percent of the world’s smokers live in India (World Health Organization, 2008). The 2009-2010 Global Adult Tobacco Survey, a nationally representative household survey, found that 34.6% of adults over the age of 15 in India currently use tobacco (International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), 2010). The prevalence of tobacco smoking in Gujarat, India, including those using smokeless as well as smoked tobacco is estimated to be 19.8% among males and 1.5% among females(International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), 2010). Most smokers in India consume bidis, small cigarettes containing, on average, 25 percent less tobacco than the average cigarette (Jha et al., 2008). Despite the smaller amount of tobacco in bidis, they can produce more nicotine, carbon monoxide, and tar than the average manufactured cigarette because of the way smokers puff on them (Mackay J et al., 2006). One recent nationally representative case-control study found t hat about 70% of smoking-related deaths in India take place during productive years of life between 30-69 years of age (Jha et al., 2008). In addition, the study projected that smoking will kill one million people each year starting in 2010 (Jha et al., 2008). Since 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO)'s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) offers a ... ... or sub-national setting. In the past several years, low and middle-income countries have seen an increased number of smoke-free policies (World Health Organization, 2009). However, some of these policies do not meet the FCTC’s recommendations or are poorly enforced at the sub-national level (World Health Organization, 2009). Therefore, it is important to examine the cost-effectiveness of current smoke-free policies to provide decision makers with the evidence needed to strengthen existing policies to meet FCTC requirements. Additionally, given the exceptions in India’s current smoke-free legislation and the high levels of exposure to secondhand smoke found in recent data, there is a particular need for transparent cost-effectiveness analysis of smoke-free legislation in India(International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), 2010; Trostle et al., 1999).

Philosophy of Art Essay

Introduction This paper attempts to establish what practitioners of philosophy can learn from practitioners of Art. In doing so, the paper first looks into art and philosophy so as to offer a clear understanding of the subjects, before turning into the main theme. What is Art?   Ã‚  Ã‚   Even though the above question appears simple, it is interesting and can, and is answered by reverting to the philosophy of art. In addition, art embraces descriptions of beauty, taste, symbolism as well as representation. Philosophy of art also explores the association existing between the individual artist (ideas), and the bigger congregation (audiences, culture, and universe) (Carroll N, 1998). That being the case, what does philosophy of art tell us about art? Some versions assert that art is a creative activity, expression or process of humans. According to Leo Tolstoy ‘Art is that human activity which consists in one human consciously conveying to others, by certain external signs, the feelings he has experienced and in others being affected by those feelings and also experiencing them.’ (Carroll N, 1998). On the other hand, when something is done perfectly or acquainted by study and practice; it is referred to as an art (Carroll N, 1998). For instance, driving a car, dressing in a nice dress, laying a child to sleep or even the art of conversion. In essence, art includes objects developed by humans that have aesthetic value or present symbolic meaning encompassing drawings, paintings as well as sculpture. Thus from the above observations, art can be said to be a symbolic representation of peoples association with nature (reality/environments). It is able to offer the concealed relations between things. It is beauty, it is truth. However, what does truth and beauty imply? This is where philosophy comes in as philosophy is the art of establishing the truth such that this truth is applied to life. In the same manner, art can be based on established truth that express the wonder and beauty of a relationship to the universe as it is acknowledged in the works of Marcel Proust and Henry Mattisse (Diffey T, 1995). ‘Art is a selective recreation of reality according to an artist’s metaphysical value judgments. An artist recreates those aspects of reality which represent his fundamental view of man’s natures.’   Ã‚  (Marcell Proust)( Diffey T, 1995), while Henry Mattisse writes ‘when we speak of nature, it is wrong to forget that we are ourselves a part of nature. We ought to view ourselves with the same curiosity and openness with which we study a tree, the sky or a thought because we too are linked to the entire universe (Diffey T, 1995).’ The different forms of art are visual arts which involve aspects such as painting, photography and sculpture among others, and fine arts which embrace music, dance, theatre, literature, poetry, etc. What is philosophy? As William Thomas points out, ‘Philosophy studies the fundamental nature of existence of man and man’s relationship to existence†¦in the realm of cognition, the special sciences are the trees but philosophy is the soil which makes the forest possible’ (Bender J, 1993). A philosophy is an all inclusive organization of ideas concerning human nature as well as the nature of the truth we live in. it is a guide of living since the subjects it deals with are crucial and enveloping, establishing the course we take in life and how we treat other people. Among the most important field that philosopher’s deal with fall into a number of separate fields. Among them, the most imperatives ones are; metaphysics which deals with the theory of reality, epistemology that connotes the theory of knowledge, ethics which is theory of moral values, politics which is theory of legal rights and government and aesthetics which refers to theory of nature of art (Carroll N, 1998). The vehicle for philosophical guidance is religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism as well as Islam. Religions vary from philosophers not in the issues they deal with but in the ways they employ to address them. Religions are based on mythic stories that existed earlier before discovery of unequivocally cogent methods of inquiry (Bender J, 1993). The present day religion (majority of) appeal to mystical faith as well as revelation sort of belief that claim legitimacy independent of logic, and the scientific method, at least made for the biggest subjects. However, majority of religions are in their commencement pre-rational as opposed to anti-rational, a story teller’s account of philosophic issues as opposed to scientists (Bender J, 1993). Philosophy in Greek connotes ‘love of wisdom’. Philosophy is founded on rational arguments and appeal to facts (Bender J, 1993). Modern science history began with philosophical enquiries and the scientific method of research and proof is an aspect of the general approach that a philosopher attempts to bring to a question; one that is coherent and vigorous. Philosophy is known to offer deep and wide questions presently. Dealing with the issues in each branch of philosophy calls for integration of everything one knows concerning reality (metaphysics) or humanity (epistemology, ethics, politics and aesthetics) recommending reasonable inclination in philosophy therefore is not a simple job. Frankly, philosophers more often than not disagree about principle subject; some slipping their own positions in the mix as well (Diffey T, 1995). Thus, there is no particular philosophy world wide as is the case with physics, chemistry among other disciplines.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Having clearly distinguished the two disciplines, then we can embark on the issue of what a philosopher can learn from an artist. This calls us to explore the subfield of philosophy. It relates to nature of art, in addition to performing of arts as well as painting, sculpture and literature (Diffey T, 1995). Major concerns in aesthetic comprise of how artistic creations should be construed as well as assessed and how the arts are linked to one another, to natural beauty, morality, religious science as well as other crucial aspects of human life. The association between art and epistemology has been everlastingly tenuous and burdened with a lot of arguments (Diffey T, 1995). It is acknowledged that there is something meaningful from experiences as well as interactions with works of arts. However, it is not considered as obvious that whether or not the experiences one has with art can produce propositional understanding that is represented by true vindicated belief (Diffey T, 1995).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whereas engaging objects aesthetically is both insightness and emotionally burdening practice, it is also essentially cognitive. Therefore, it can be said that aesthetic engagement is based on various epistemological concerns (Carroll N, 1998). For instance, philosophers claim to know about art. People say that they believed the play was good or bad, but the emotions it produced were called for, justified, manipulative or suitable. In most cases, people allege that they learn from art, that art alters their view of the world and that art has influence on the way they view as well as make sense of the world (Carroll N, 1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It also widely acknowledged that works of arts particularly good works of art, can cause view points about the world and can in turn offer knowledge concerning the world (Carroll N, 1998). However, what can exactly be known about art? Does art have any sort of propositional content that resembles the context that philosophers claim to require for other sort of knowledge claim?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The subject of whether philosophers have something to learn from artists revolves back to the period of Plato. Plato warned about the perils of making a fuss of mimetic as well as narrative demonstrations of the world and human actions. A practitioner of philosophy by his engagement with art permits certain emotions or activities that are able to facilitate or produce knowledge. It should be acknowledged that some aspects of art work that are able to produce greater understanding of the surrounding world (Carroll N, 1998).   In this case, art becomes a source of insight as well as awareness, even though it cannot be put into propositional language.   It can help people (philosophy practitioners) see the world in a new or different way (Carroll N, 1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   They are often those who view art as being incapable of offering knowledge primarily because it does not generate any truth; they argue that since art cannot offer facts or produce arguments then there is nothing to learn from it (Diffey T, 1995).   They further argue that art cannot be acknowledged as a source of knowledge as it is not productive of knowledge, construed in the convectional sense of vindictive true belief. They assert that art is devoid of propositional content capable of being learnt the conventional way, whereas it has influences that promote knowledge and that can promote or weaken the development of understanding. Thus the net effect is to reject art as a source of knowledge as it does not offer true beliefs and furthermore because it does not as well as cannot vindicate the views that it does express (Diffey T, 1995).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, those who are for and those against concur that art is a source of knowledge, the only way that it can probably satisfy such a function be it that knowledge neglected something crucial to art’s nature as well as value (Diffey T, 1995). Plato articulates that it is possible for an artist to make a representation of a thing without having advance knowledge of his presentation.   For instance, painters represent cobblers when the painters have no idea how to make shoes, and poets write about virtue such as beauty and courage without any clear knowledge of these attributes (Carroll N, 1998). To Plato, it is only philosophers and moreover, those who struggle to intuit (feel) the forms and employ abstract reasoning are able to have know-how of these virtues.   To him, the same things exist even for the literary arts in particular.   He asserts that the more one engages in emotions brought about by representations, the more likely one is to suffer the influences of an unstable soul and finally the growth of bad attitude (Carroll N, 1998). Aristotle seems to have agreed with Plato that art influences the development of one’s moral character.   These two philosophers believed that people learn from art, however, Plato argued that the gained knowledge was harmful while Aristotle argued that it was beneficial (Carroll N, 1998). Going back to the period of renaissance and beyond it should be noted that the works of art such as poetry and fiction engages the emotions of a philosopher in a healthy way rather as opposed to detrimental manner (Bender J, 1993).   Some philosophers point out that there are there crucial types of knowledge claims that can be made concerning arts which are distinguished by objects. The first is what philosophers claim to know or believe concerning the art object itself and anything unreal or fictional worlds might be linked to that object. The second aspect of knowledge claim about art relates to what is known or believed to be appropriate emotional reaction to the art work. It is crucial to note at this point that works of art are correct, understood through having a certain kind of emotional response to them (Bender J, 1993). The only problem encountered in this course is that it is not possible to establish the kind of response that is appropriate in relation to a particular work of art (Bender J, 1993). The last kind of knowledge claim that is available as far as art is concerned relates to the nature of information art can offer about the whole world (Bender J, 1993). It is important to note that art affords imperative insight into the way philosophers order and understand the world. Art gives a certain degree of meaning to the lives of philosophers. Art, particularly literature, draws out novel views (beliefs) as well as new knowledge concerning the world (Bender J, 1993). Conclusion From the above, it is noteworthy that philosophy practitioners have a lot to learn from practitioners of art. It is important to acknowledge what constitutes knowledge so as to be able to understand how art impacts the subject. Reference Bender, John (1993).   â€Å"Art as a Source of Knowledge: Linking Analytic Aesthetics and Epistemology.† In Contemporary Philosophy of Art, ed. John Bender and Gene Blocker. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Carroll, Noel (1998). â€Å"Art, Narrative, and Moral Understanding.† In Aesthetics and Ethics: Essays at the Intersection, ed. Jerrold Levinson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Diffey, T .J (1995): â€Å"What Can We Learn From Art?† Australasian Journal of Philosophy 73 202-11.

Behavioral Observation Project

Going to school is one of the most valuable social rituals people do. Staying for over 15 years at school, people earn an academic education that will shape their careers and lives. In school, people also meet friends and mentors who influence their personal beliefs. The early years in school are especially crucial for shaping foundations for virtues such as the proper behavior and self-discipline. Thus, grade school teachers are given the responsibility of instilling in their students the right qualities and attitudes.The learning site observed is a co-ed second grade class. The students are smart and energetic kids, with a few quiet ones thrown in. They come mostly from middle-class families and are of mixed ethnicities. They are still learning the core of education; spelling, writing, reading comprehension, basic geography, and fractions. Their teacher is male and a fresh university graduate; thus, he is younger than most of the faculty members. His youth presents itself in his in teraction and communication style.The teacher is approachable and authoritative at the same time. He is kind, friendlier, and less stiff than other teachers. He also has a more laidback demeanor that is evident in his non-verbal gestures, such as giving high-fives and thumbs up to his students as a way of affirming their answers. His students perceive him as likable and are also more relaxed with him. By their standards, he is seen as more of big brother type rather than a scary teacher. The respect he receives is different, but in no way less than what other teachers get.At times when the students get too noisy or when kids fight, the teacher lets out his more commanding side to discipline the students. The teacher aims to improve and influence his students’ behavior, such as building up their self-discipline to keep them from chatting with seatmates and increase the attention that they pay to the lessons. To fulfill these, he makes use of some reinforcing and motivating con sequences for the children’s actions. According to Skinner, using reinforcements is effective in helping shape or condition one’s reactions to stimuli.Thus, stimuli are called behavior influencers (Barker, Kreider, Peissig, Sokoloff & Stansfield, 2008) Positive reinforcement increases the desired stimulus while a negative reinforcement removes a negative stimulus. Both encourage one to continue whichever action will lead to one’s benefit and increased comfort (Feist & Feist, 2007). In the case of the second grade class, the most important stimulus is their grades. Having good grades leads to positive stimuli such as teacher’s praises, feelings of pride, and rewards from their parents.On the other hand, low grades bring about negative stimuli like dissatisfaction with oneself and disappointment from teachers and parents. The second-grade teacher uses public praises as positive reinforcements for kids who do well. By announcing how high one student’s grade is or by putting up the best artwork on the classroom corkboard, he highlights the student’s admirable behavior and quality of schoolwork, thus heartening the student to continue his or her hard work. The teacher uses mostly intangible reward to cheer his students on, as he hopes to motivate his students intrinsically rather than by bribes or physical rewards.Internal motivation will lead to a continued and better performance. He makes a special exception though for the case of a student with ADHD. He gives external rewards such as bowling games vouchers to this particular student to persuade him to continue his good performance and classroom behavior and continue his improvements. The teacher does not practice much punishment and extinction in the classroom. The harshest punishment he does is calling out a student’s name to get his or her attention back to the lessons. He was allowed to give them detention, especially when the kids get very naughty.His strength as an instructor and behavior model for the kids lay in the fact that he never had to give detentions because he is able to subdue a conflict before it even starts. He also understands the kids’ need to let go of pent-up energy and allows them to have some energy-releasing activities. The students receive punishment and extinction at home, mostly in the form of added chores for the former and revoked TV and video game privileges for the latter. The second graders are under the teacher’s excellent classroom management. The teacher’s policies are effectively and followed soundly.The teacher showed a perceptive understanding of when he should be friendly and when he should be authoritative with his students. Further, the behavior and discipline conditioning is enhanced by the good, trusting relationships between the teacher and his students. References Barker, B. , J Kreider, J Peissig, G Sokoloff, & M Stansfield. (2008). Glossary of terms for the experimental ana lysis of behavior. The University of Iowa. Retrieved February 9, 2009 from http://www. psychology. uiowa. edu/Faculty/Wasserman/Glossary/stimuli. html Feist, J. & Feist, G. J. (2007). Theories of Personality (6th ed). N

Research Proposal †Brief Provisional Title Essay

Brief Provisional Title: To what extent does media reporting, during a two-month period in 2000 contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles. The main aims of the dissertation: It can be suggested amongst academic literature that much of the heightened attacks against paedophiles is media generated, generally the media is perceived as instigators of provoking and motivating heightened anxiety and vigilantes amongst the public domain (refer to Kitzinger, 1999b and Soothill, 1991). Ultimately it can be claimed that tabloid newspapers have led the way in the construction of the personification of paedophiles, often portraying them as ‘perverts’, ‘evil’ and ‘beasts’, reinforcing the public’s beliefs that paedophiles are somewhat a different species apart from ‘ordinary’ people. It can be platitude amongst academic commentators â€Å"that the newsprint media do more than merely reflect social reality† (Greer, 2003, P.44 ), the media can be accused of amplifying a moral panic or even cultivating a mob rule mentality through such conceptualisations. The print media potentially play an active role in criminological theory, too exemplify labelling theory. The labelling theory focuses on the premise that crime and criminal behaviour is a social process, that of the relationship between an individual who is defined as deviant and those who have the power to label such individual as deviant. These general propositions attribute the media as an important factor in such process, thus helping to construct the paedophile with a hate figure identity. The process by which labelling occurs has social and psychological implications on those who are labelled, which in my research is paedophiles. Embedded within such theory exists the belief that such individuals who are labelled are likely to incorporate the label within their self-image and such stigmatisation is likely to affect how they are treated by others in the future. Indeed Spencer, 1999 proclaims that â€Å"where paedophiles are hounded out, they will go underground† (Spencer , 1999, P.178). Such a theory will be applied into my dissertation to attempt to explain whether the labelling of paedophiles by the print media contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles. However throughout my research process there existed an identifiable relationship between the failures of legislation, in accordance to the protection of children and vigilante attacks towards paedophiles, as â€Å"people seem to have lost confidence in the system and have decided to take the law into their own hands† (David, 1997, P.20). But such a relationship will not be acknowledged within my research, as my aim is to examine the way in which paedophiles are represented and labelled through print media reporting. Examining such relationship between legislation and vigilante attacks would inevitably result in me exploring outside the realm of my research question. The central research question I wish to explore is: â€Å"To what extent does media reporting, during a two-month period contribute to the vigilantes towards paedophiles?† My initial hypothesis is that negative labelling of paedophiles perceived through the print media structure individuals perceptions. There also exists a certain complicity towards the way in which the print media reinforces or contributes people’s actions to act violently towards paedophiles. Reasons for undertaking research: Although I have never worked with sex offenders or with victims who have experienced such abuse, the desire to focus my dissertation on paedophiles originated from the tragic death of Sarah Payne in July 2000 by Roy Whiting, a previous convicted sex offender. What jilted my interest was the profound response of the public and media, which triggered a campaign for the implementation of ‘Sarah’s Law’. Such a campaign resulted in the actions of the Sunday newspaper, the News Of The World publicly naming and shaming convicted paedophiles. To me this is detrimental not only to children but also to paedophiles are they are likely to pose a greater risk to children. A great concern of mine is the way in which paedophiles are stereotypically represented by the media, as it notably feeds the hysteria of public fear and incites such hostility for lynch mob frenzy. Methodology and methods: To investigate the way in which paedophiles are portrayed in the print media and does such portrayal reinforce violent behaviour, I wish to examine both written text and visual images, thus resulting in my methodology consisting of a qualitative approach. My methodology will allow me to explore the ideological themes and stereotypical language embedded within such press report, evaluating whether conceptualisations of the paedophile incite a violent mentality. The source of documentation I wish to analyse in my methodology, will be from national newspapers from the year 2000, such as the News Of The World, The Sun, the Daily Mail and The Guardian, which will consist of a time framework of two months, preferably being the months July and August. I wish to explore these specific months as the newspaper, the News Of The World, in the summer of 2000 undertook such initiative to publicly name and shame convicted paedophiles. Examining newspapers during this period will inevitably provide me with a rich source of information to evaluate and analyse. Due to my study concentrating on a limited time framework and a specific theme it is fair to illustrate that my study will not represent the norm of the print media in relation to the way in which paedophiles are ascribed with such label, my study will only represent a fragment of the print media. However my intentions from my findings is to elucidate the representation of paedophiles within the print media and provide a rigorous analysis concerning the way in which the media militates violent behaviour towards paedophiles. Thus in relation to my research there may exist some difficulties I may encounter these may include, with respect to a paedophile report, me questioning to what extent a report featured in a newspaper is actually valid, which could result in my findings representing a misinterpretation of paedophiles. With respect to resources, I may encounter difficulties in relation to gaining access to newspaper articles from the year 2000. Some articles can be gained from UWCN Library but other articles from newspapers such as the News Of The World and The Sun may result in me researching beyond the UWCN library to libraries such as Cardiff or even paying to order back issues from the internet. Bibliography: David, M. (1997). Child Protection, Moral Outrage or Mob Rule? Community Care. 7 August, PP. 20-21. Greer, C. (2003). Sex Crime And The media, Cornwall: Willan Publishing. Kitzinger, J. (2002). The Ultimate Neighbour Form Hell? Stranger Danger And The Media Framing Paedophiles. In: Jewkes, Y and Letherby, G. Criminology: A reader, London: Sage Publications. McDonald, l. (2001). Sex Offender, The Home Office And the Sunday Papers, Journal of Social Welfare and family Law 23 (1), PP. 103-108. Reiner, R (2002). Media Made Criminality. In: Maguire, M and et-al. The Oxford Handbook Of Criminology, Oxford university press. Thomas, T. (2002). Sex Crime, Sex Offending And Society, Cornwall, Willan publishing. Tierney, J. (1996). Criminology, Theory And Context, England: Longman. White, R and Haines, F. (1996). Crime and Criminology, An Introduction, Oxford University Press.

Begining stages that lead to war of 1812

During the beginning stages of the War of 1812, Britain was fully engaged in fighting Napoleon in Europe and desperately tried to avoid a confrontation with the United States. However, Britain did little to stop it. While Britain was pre-occupied fighting Napoleon, America saw an opportunity to expand their territory and attempt to conquer British North America.Due to the poor organization of the U. S. forces and lack of military strategy, America failed to accomplish their main objective to take control of the northern territory of British North America.The other objective of the United States was to preserve the rights of neutrals and maintain the freedom of the seas and continue its trades with whom they desired. It is debatable who won the war; from a military stand point the British won the key battles however, the war ended in a stalemate with no gain for either side. In order to examine this thesis clearly, the paper approach shall be to look at the American grievances against British, offensive strategy of America, Britain defensive strategy and the failure of America to conquer Canada.Failure by America to conquer Canada is not really one of the stages in the beginning of the war, but rather to demonstrate the degree of gain and reason for that degree of gain. Beginning stages that lead to the War of 1812 There were various diplomatic policies approach was employed to regain a peaceful and harmonious coexistence between America and British. This was done through the use of various bills and Acts that would ensure peaceful coexistence between America and British. For instance, the Embargo Act of 1807, the Nonintercourse Act of March 1809, and the passed Macon's Bill No.2 ; all this legislation were a clear indication of America’s commitment for use of diplomacy to resolve policy crises with Great Britain. However, due to the ongoing British war with napoleon , Great Britain over step on the American rights and national pride that saw war as the o nly option to have British change its harmful policies that hampers various US progress and development. Many Americans viewed the war as a continuation of revolution, but from sociopolitical perspective scholars; the move was necessary to protect and strengthen the new found independence from England’s aggression .Sadly, two days after war declaration orders by the congress, the England parliament had already revisited those policies that added grievances to US by repealing the orders in council and sent a message to America. Unfortunately, the message reached when it was too late a midst initial war battles in Detroit by Gen. Hull that accounted to British delay to prevent the war. It is in this line of thought that this paper shall examine the core causes for war to be initiated and the results that leave a large quantity of debate to who won the war.America’s grievances’ against England The Americans had many built up anger and pain against Britain during th e initial steps that marked the beginning of the war. These grievances were however fueled up with economic and political reasons behind the scenes to play an active drive role into steps to ignite the battle. For instance many scholars of political science like Buel, Richard (2006), states that criticism directed to President James Madison greatly played a contributory role to start of the war.During the time, President James Madison was criticized for his failure to stand up against Britain injustices to U. S. Therefore, faced with daunting task of election in late 1812, James Madison had only two options to either negotiate with Britain or go to war to increase his popularity and prove his capabilities for leading this great nation. As a result, when diplomatic approach failed, Madison asked the congress to vote on war. Fortunately, 19 to 13 rotes in senate and 79 to 49 rotes in the house of representative; was a go ahead command on war on Great Britain on 18th June, 1812.Despite political reason on war declaration on Great Britain, the United States of America was fed up with British impressments . Great Britain reverted to a policy of boarding Americans ship to retrieve the former sailors of Britain who had deserted the Royal Navy to look for a better pay and life to United States of America. As a result of this hunt for sailors, British seized 11,000 sailors by mid 1805. The need for the impressments was on the basis of expanded Royal Navy to 175 of the line together with other 425 ships that required more professional sailors about 140,000.These sailors could not be found with land of Great Britain, therefore, they opted to press and retrieve the Royal Navy veterans and other experienced sailors from merchant shipping and privateers . In reacting to that, the United States of America felt that the Royal Navy deserters were justified to be citizens of US; of course owing to their benefits. To worsen the matter, Britons failed to honor this fundamental ri ght of the US, instead provoked law openly. They refused to recognize the naturalized US citizenship, and considered all US citizens born in Britain territory to be liable for impressments.The situation was made worse when Britain impressed Americans. Worst of all was when the British frigates were stationed on the America harbors; in fact in America’s territorial waters conducting their searches, it could not be tolerated even by a dead patriotic American . This resultant act injured the American National pride. The trade inhibition and hampering as a result of Britain blockade of the Napoleonic Europe was a major concern to US trade that could not be swept under carpet.The Britain in attempt to Block commodities to reach into the hands of French, they seized estimated 400 Americans ship that adversely affected the trade of America. The American society felt that by seizing of their merchant ships by the great Britain in their attempt to block US trade with France Empire dur ing their war; they did not only breach the international law, but also they failed to recognize Americans neutral rights in regard to the ongoing war between the Britain and France.Black, Jeremy (2006), adds that, Great Britain practiced blockade since it perceived a possible threat by the doubling rate of US state merchant marine and fear of losing the 80 percent cotton import and 50 percent overall of the US exports to other European nations. Therefore Britain felt threatened to loose commercially and growing mercantile of the US. And by these actions and policies, America felt that the Great Britain breached Neutral Nation’s Right to trade with their own chosen trade partner. The conflict built up and pressure for war increased.The British’s practice of arming the native enemies of Americans; Indians of western fueled the conflict, since they were increasingly hostile strengthened by British support . As a consequence, it was difficult for Americans to defeat the n ative enemies due to their support from Britain. Therefore to make the Great Britain change its prices, war was necessary to cause tangible pain to Britain, in order for America to gain. Other scholars usually add that desire for expansion was drive for war and conquer on Canada .However this argument is not clear and lacks empirical evidence from various supportive perspectives and position. However the outstanding issue is the fact that Great Britain leadership failed to stop the war. In the sense that, despite massive protest and demonstrations by the Americans craving for â€Å"free trade sand sailor’s rights†, the Britons could not read these building up pressure for freedom and respect for Americans rights. Instead, they intensified from high seas crime to American shows, extending it inland to arming of the Indians.This action and deafness of the Britain officials, justify the American â€Å"war hawks† statement that Great Britain crimes were not only con fined to the high seas, but also injurious to national pride of the United States of America . Therefore, war was inevitable in an attempt to reclaim this past glory. The follow up events saw war declaration on British on 18th June 1812 when Great Britain was concentrating on Europe Napoleonic war . This led to the invasion of Canada. American goal to maintain offensive strategiesAfter the war declaration on British passed by smallest margin recorded on war vote in US congress, it consequently lead to US invasion of Canada. Despite the invasion and desire to conquer Canada, the war strategy employed was offensive . This is in the light that British Royal Navy was powerful in the worlds at that present time, and no way could inexperienced and untrained fighters would outwit them. Secondly the US focus was to conquer Canada basing on land battles for lower and Upper Canada that most of its inhabitants were post war immigrants or exile from US.Natives were not for interest of the US, j ustifying their hostility to the US unions. The third aspect was the focus by US on building ships that would fight the British in great lakes. In all of these thee aspects upon US invasion of Canada, there is no single strategy that focus on the organization of the fight due to lack of professionalism in the US militia. Instead, all these tree focus point were directed on breaking the power of native enemies and conquering the British North America, while failing to take into account the power of the British military component would help them to organize their army to fight well.Furthermore, the Royal Navy was too powerful for American navy which was in a better shape anyway due to ingredient of experienced and competent sailors. Therefore, the battle in Atlantic did not materialize to see the light of the day. In return, the American marine campaign and efforts were diverted to disrupting merchant trade in sea. Fortunately, this campaign yielded many victories to the US, but it wa s of no impact to barricade Great Britain trade and provide away through to their controlling the Great Lake . British goal to maintain a defensive strategyThe British military power that was present in Canada was well trained to defend the interests of the Great Britain. But the outstanding challenge was the large numbers of the American army that outnumbered them. Empirically, statistics reveals that British regular troops present in Canada at the beginning of the war were in 6,034 soldiers, against 13,000 American soldiers which were increased to 35,000 men with authorization by the congress. Lieutenant General Sir. George Prevost was the commander in chief of the Northern America for England was instructed to employ defensive strategy of the war against Americans.Since, it was clear that war with America was of no preference to Napoleonic war . In addition to number deficiency to justify British engage in defensive strategy, British armies were all committed to the fighting Napo leon and peninsular as it was a priority to British than Northern America. While the Royal Navy was involved in the Europe sea blockade, the options were to protect the marine communication between Canada and Britain to facilitate supplies and weaken the American battle strengths by blockading American ports to disrupt trade and divert the attentions of war.As a result, American East Coast was under blockade leaving only a section of New England since they were against the war and declined to offer help to reinforce America in the war. These temporary measures were necessary to guarantee reinforcement to the small British army in the Canada. The measure of blockading the America ports produced negative tangible impact to the US , since the exports dropped sharply, coastal trade became dangerous, ships were stack on the ports without business, port towns affected and agriculturalists of West and the South felt the pitch.It is a point of worthy to mention that Canada’s defensiv e strategies were directed towards strategic and core areas to sustainability of British control in Canada, unlike the US forces that were scattered. Most important and key areas were; Montreal vital for facilitating supply to Upper Canada with resources; Quebec City enabled and linked provisions from England up the St. Lawrence River to the areas of the west; and upper Canada.Despite successful defensive strategy in conjunction with the port blockade, geographical limitation to the British soldiers . America failed to conquer Canada Despite presence of indicators of necessity of using war against Great Britain, America was never prepared for war . President Madison undervalued the military task force needed to seize Canada, whereby at the start he sent regular army of about 13,000 men who were severely defeated. As a consequence, the American congress authorized an additional army to expand the military power to 35, 000 men.The dark side of these increased numbers was that, they we re unprofessional volunteers, who were poorly paid with low motivation to fight outside their home state. This resulted to inefficiency in the military needed to conquer Canada. Defective military strategies were evident as Americans scattered their forces in multi-pronged attacks that bore no fruits. In sum total, the Americans inadequate preparation in naval, military and financial domains generated incompetent troops without proper financial for the war.The United States of America experienced difficulties in financing its war; since New England withdrew its support for funds and military units, worse of that was the fact America had disbanded its national bank. The only help for funds could have been from private bankers from the Northeast, but northeast private bankers were greatly opposed to the war and could not offer a helping hand for the war . The organization of the military base received a blow due to uncooperative and quarrelsome commanders who were struggling for power and control over military forces.While militia called to reinforce the army it defined itself as a defensive force for war of obstruction rather than conquest. Evidently, all early attempts to invade Canada did not bore any fruits due to those shortcomings on US military and state failure. For instance, General Hull’s attempted attack geared to conquer Canada from Detroit four days after war declaration, backed off due to fear of the native militias. As a result, the Canadian commanding officer Gen. Brock capitalized on this fear to fully advantage. And lead to significant losses in the military battles.By April 1814 after napoleon surrender, Britain transferred its military mighty to reinforce Canada in a major landing operation. The initial operations were made in Chesapeake Bay and Maine which were a success. This totally paralyzed American efforts to conquer Canada. This ignited further military actions for against America in Maryland, Washington, D. C. , Bladensburg and the burning of white house in the year 25th of august in 1814. But, British move to attack and capture Baltimore was put off by now better shaped American armies. Conclusion` The paper has discussed exclusively the early stages and causes the Americans to engage in a military way to regain its control over their land and sovereignty. In attempt bring out the argument the paper has looked at the America’s grievances’ against great Britain, American goal to maintain offensive strategies, British goal to maintain a defensive strategy and main attributes why America failed to conquer Canada and never gained what it went to war for, apart from victory by General Andrew Jackson in the battle of New Orleans over British army.It was necessarily important that Americans were never defeated by the Britons. While on the other hand, the Britons were not defeated by Americans in their quest to conquer Canada. In other words, neither of the side lost or gained apart from slight tak eover by the America of Carleton Island to be part of New York. The resultant situation of Ghent peace treaty signed on 24th December, 1814, brought back the respect and honor to the American society to maintain its status quo.While at the same time, facilitating policy changes by the British in favor of America. Additionally, the US learned not to rely too heavily on a militia, but rather have an effective, competent and a more organized army. Although Americans tried to battle with their enemy, they had more than enough reasons to fear the British, whereas Canadians had sufficient evidence to fear the Americans. Bibliography Black, Jeremy. America as a Military Power 1775-1865: Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002Black, Jeremy. Britain as a Military Power: London, UK: Routledge, 1998. Buel, Richard. America on the Brink; How the Political Struggle over the War of 1812 Almost Destroyed the Young Republic: Gordonsville: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Langguth, A. J. Union 1812; New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. Stuart, Reginald. United States Expansionism and British North America 1775-1871. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998.